Lately, we confirmed easy methods to use torch
for wavelet evaluation. A member of the household of spectral evaluation strategies, wavelet evaluation bears some similarity to the Fourier Rework, and particularly, to its widespread two-dimensional software, the spectrogram.
As defined in that e book excerpt, although, there are vital variations. For the needs of the present publish, it suffices to know that frequency-domain patterns are found by having somewhat “wave” (that, actually, might be of any form) “slide” over the information, computing diploma of match (or mismatch) within the neighborhood of each pattern.
With this publish, then, my aim is two-fold.
First, to introduce torchwavelets, a tiny, but helpful bundle that automates all the important steps concerned. In comparison with the Fourier Rework and its purposes, the subject of wavelets is somewhat “chaotic” – that means, it enjoys a lot much less shared terminology, and far much less shared apply. Consequently, it is smart for implementations to comply with established, community-embraced approaches, each time such can be found and properly documented. With torchwavelets
, we offer an implementation of Torrence and Compo’s 1998 “Sensible Information to Wavelet Evaluation” (Torrence and Compo (1998)), an oft-cited paper that proved influential throughout a variety of software domains. Code-wise, our bundle is usually a port of Tom Runia’s PyTorch implementation, itself based mostly on a previous implementation by Aaron O’Leary.
Second, to point out a horny use case of wavelet evaluation in an space of nice scientific curiosity and super social significance (meteorology/climatology). Being on no account an skilled myself, I’d hope this could possibly be inspiring to folks working in these fields, in addition to to scientists and analysts in different areas the place temporal knowledge come up.
Concretely, what we’ll do is take three completely different atmospheric phenomena – El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and Arctic Oscillation (AO) – and examine them utilizing wavelet evaluation. In every case, we additionally have a look at the general frequency spectrum, given by the Discrete Fourier Rework (DFT), in addition to a basic time-series decomposition into pattern, seasonal elements, and the rest.
Three oscillations
By far the best-known – probably the most notorious, I ought to say – among the many three is El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), a.ok.a. El Niño/La Niña. The time period refers to a altering sample of sea floor temperatures and sea-level pressures occurring within the equatorial Pacific. Each El Niño and La Niña can and do have catastrophic impression on folks’s lives, most notably, for folks in creating international locations west and east of the Pacific.
El Niño happens when floor water temperatures within the jap Pacific are increased than regular, and the robust winds that usually blow from east to west are unusually weak. From April to October, this results in sizzling, extraordinarily moist climate circumstances alongside the coasts of northern Peru and Ecuador, frequently leading to main floods. La Niña, alternatively, causes a drop in sea floor temperatures over Southeast Asia in addition to heavy rains over Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. Whereas these are the areas most gravely impacted, modifications in ENSO reverberate throughout the globe.
Much less well-known than ENSO, however extremely influential as properly, is the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO). It strongly impacts winter climate in Europe, Greenland, and North America. Its two states relate to the dimensions of the stress distinction between the Icelandic Excessive and the Azores Low. When the stress distinction is excessive, the jet stream – these robust westerly winds that blow between North America and Northern Europe – is but stronger than regular, resulting in heat, moist European winters and calmer-than-normal circumstances in Japanese North America. With a lower-than-normal stress distinction, nonetheless, the American East tends to incur extra heavy storms and cold-air outbreaks, whereas winters in Northern Europe are colder and extra dry.
Lastly, the Arctic Oscillation (AO) is a ring-like sample of sea-level stress anomalies centered on the North Pole. (Its Southern-hemisphere equal is the Antarctic Oscillation.) AO’s affect extends past the Arctic Circle, nonetheless; it’s indicative of whether or not and the way a lot Arctic air flows down into the center latitudes. AO and NAO are strongly associated, and would possibly designate the identical bodily phenomenon at a elementary degree.
Now, let’s make these characterizations extra concrete by taking a look at precise knowledge.
Evaluation: ENSO
We start with the best-known of those phenomena: ENSO. Information can be found from 1854 onwards; nonetheless, for comparability with AO, we discard all information previous to January, 1950. For evaluation, we decide NINO34_MEAN
, the month-to-month common sea floor temperature within the Niño 3.4 area (i.e., the world between 5° South, 5° North, 190° East, and 240° East). Lastly, we convert to a tsibble
, the format anticipated by feasts::STL()
.
library(tidyverse)
library(tsibble)
obtain.file(
"https://bmcnoldy.rsmas.miami.edu/tropics/oni/ONI_NINO34_1854-2022.txt",
destfile = "ONI_NINO34_1854-2022.txt"
)
enso <- read_table("ONI_NINO34_1854-2022.txt", skip = 9) %>%
mutate(x = yearmonth(as.Date(paste0(YEAR, "-", `MON/MMM`, "-01")))) %>%
choose(x, enso = NINO34_MEAN) %>%
filter(x >= yearmonth("1950-01"), x <= yearmonth("2022-09")) %>%
as_tsibble(index = x)
enso
# A tsibble: 873 x 2 [1M]
x enso
<mth> <dbl>
1 1950 Jan 24.6
2 1950 Feb 25.1
3 1950 Mar 25.9
4 1950 Apr 26.3
5 1950 Might 26.2
6 1950 Jun 26.5
7 1950 Jul 26.3
8 1950 Aug 25.9
9 1950 Sep 25.7
10 1950 Oct 25.7
# … with 863 extra rows
As already introduced, we need to have a look at seasonal decomposition, as properly. When it comes to seasonal periodicity, what will we anticipate? Until informed in any other case, feasts::STL()
will fortunately decide a window dimension for us. Nevertheless, there’ll possible be a number of vital frequencies within the knowledge. (Not eager to spoil the suspense, however for AO and NAO, this can positively be the case!). Apart from, we need to compute the Fourier Rework anyway, so why not do this first?
Right here is the facility spectrum:
Within the under plot, the x axis corresponds to frequencies, expressed as “variety of instances per yr.” We solely show frequencies as much as and together with the Nyquist frequency, i.e., half the sampling fee, which in our case is 12 (per yr).
num_samples <- nrow(enso)
nyquist_cutoff <- ceiling(num_samples / 2) # highest discernible frequency
bins_below_nyquist <- 0:nyquist_cutoff
sampling_rate <- 12 # per yr
frequencies_per_bin <- sampling_rate / num_samples
frequencies <- frequencies_per_bin * bins_below_nyquist
df <- knowledge.body(f = frequencies, y = as.numeric(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff + 1)]$abs()))
df %>% ggplot(aes(f, y)) +
geom_line() +
xlab("frequency (per yr)") +
ylab("magnitude") +
ggtitle("Spectrum of Niño 3.4 knowledge")

There may be one dominant frequency, equivalent to about yearly. From this part alone, we’d anticipate one El Niño occasion – or equivalently, one La Niña – per yr. However let’s find vital frequencies extra exactly. With not many different periodicities standing out, we could as properly prohibit ourselves to a few:
strongest <- torch_topk(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff/2)]$abs(), 3)
strongest
[[1]]
torch_tensor
233.9855
172.2784
142.3784
[ CPUFloatType{3} ]
[[2]]
torch_tensor
74
21
7
[ CPULongType{3} ]
What we’ve got listed below are the magnitudes of the dominant elements, in addition to their respective bins within the spectrum. Let’s see which precise frequencies these correspond to:
important_freqs <- frequencies[as.numeric(strongest[[2]])]
important_freqs
[1] 1.00343643 0.27491409 0.08247423
That’s as soon as per yr, as soon as per quarter, and as soon as each twelve years, roughly. Or, expressed as periodicity, by way of months (i.e., what number of months are there in a interval):
num_observations_in_season <- 12/important_freqs
num_observations_in_season
[1] 11.95890 43.65000 145.50000
We now cross these to feasts::STL()
, to acquire a five-fold decomposition into pattern, seasonal elements, and the rest.

Based on Loess decomposition, there nonetheless is important noise within the knowledge – the rest remaining excessive regardless of our hinting at vital seasonalities. In truth, there isn’t a large shock in that: Wanting again on the DFT output, not solely are there many, shut to 1 one other, low- and lowish-frequency elements, however as well as, high-frequency elements simply gained’t stop to contribute. And actually, as of right now, ENSO forecasting – tremendously vital by way of human impression – is targeted on predicting oscillation state only a yr upfront. This might be attention-grabbing to bear in mind for once we proceed to the opposite sequence – as you’ll see, it’ll solely worsen.
By now, we’re properly knowledgeable about how dominant temporal rhythms decide, or fail to find out, what truly occurs in ambiance and ocean. However we don’t know something about whether or not, and the way, these rhythms could have various in power over the time span thought of. That is the place wavelet evaluation is available in.
In torchwavelets
, the central operation is a name to wavelet_transform()
, to instantiate an object that takes care of all required operations. One argument is required: signal_length
, the variety of knowledge factors within the sequence. And one of many defaults we want to override: dt
, the time between samples, expressed within the unit we’re working with. In our case, that’s yr, and, having month-to-month samples, we have to cross a worth of 1/12. With all different defaults untouched, evaluation might be accomplished utilizing the Morlet wavelet (accessible alternate options are Mexican Hat and Paul), and the remodel might be computed within the Fourier area (the quickest manner, except you might have a GPU).
library(torchwavelets)
enso_idx <- enso$enso %>% as.numeric() %>% torch_tensor()
dt <- 1/12
wtf <- wavelet_transform(size(enso_idx), dt = dt)
A name to energy()
will then compute the wavelet remodel:
power_spectrum <- wtf$energy(enso_idx)
power_spectrum$form
[1] 71 873
The result’s two-dimensional. The second dimension holds measurement instances, i.e., the months between January, 1950 and September, 2022. The primary dimension warrants some extra clarification.
Specifically, we’ve got right here the set of scales the remodel has been computed for. In case you’re conversant in the Fourier Rework and its analogue, the spectrogram, you’ll most likely suppose by way of time versus frequency. With wavelets, there’s a further parameter, the dimensions, that determines the unfold of the evaluation sample.
Some wavelets have each a scale and a frequency, wherein case these can work together in complicated methods. Others are outlined such that no separate frequency seems. Within the latter case, you instantly find yourself with the time vs. scale structure we see in wavelet diagrams (scaleograms). Within the former, most software program hides the complexity by merging scale and frequency into one, leaving simply scale as a user-visible parameter. In torchwavelets
, too, the wavelet frequency (if existent) has been “streamlined away.” Consequently, we’ll find yourself plotting time versus scale, as properly. I’ll say extra once we truly see such a scaleogram.
For visualization, we transpose the information and put it right into a ggplot
-friendly format:
instances <- lubridate::yr(enso$x) + lubridate::month(enso$x) / 12
scales <- as.numeric(wtf$scales)
df <- as_tibble(as.matrix(power_spectrum$t()), .name_repair = "common") %>%
mutate(time = instances) %>%
pivot_longer(!time, names_to = "scale", values_to = "energy") %>%
mutate(scale = scales[scale %>%
str_remove("[.]{3}") %>%
as.numeric()])
df %>% glimpse()
Rows: 61,983
Columns: 3
$ time <dbl> 1950.083, 1950.083, 1950.083, 1950.083, 195…
$ scale <dbl> 0.1613356, 0.1759377, 0.1918614, 0.2092263,…
$ energy <dbl> 0.03617507, 0.05985500, 0.07948010, 0.09819…
There may be one further piece of data to be included, nonetheless: the so-called “cone of affect” (COI). Visually, it is a shading that tells us which a part of the plot displays incomplete, and thus, unreliable and to-be-disregarded, knowledge. Specifically, the larger the dimensions, the extra spread-out the evaluation wavelet, and the extra incomplete the overlap on the borders of the sequence when the wavelet slides over the information. You’ll see what I imply in a second.
The COI will get its personal knowledge body:
And now we’re able to create the scaleogram:
labeled_scales <- c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64)
labeled_frequencies <- spherical(as.numeric(wtf$fourier_period(labeled_scales)), 1)
ggplot(df) +
scale_y_continuous(
trans = scales::compose_trans(scales::log2_trans(), scales::reverse_trans()),
breaks = c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64),
limits = c(max(scales), min(scales)),
increase = c(0, 0),
sec.axis = dup_axis(
labels = scales::label_number(labeled_frequencies),
identify = "Fourier interval (years)"
)
) +
ylab("scale (years)") +
scale_x_continuous(breaks = seq(1950, 2020, by = 5), increase = c(0, 0)) +
xlab("yr") +
geom_contour_filled(aes(time, scale, z = energy), present.legend = FALSE) +
scale_fill_viridis_d(possibility = "turbo") +
geom_ribbon(knowledge = coi_df, aes(x = x, ymin = y, ymax = max(scales)),
fill = "black", alpha = 0.6) +
theme(legend.place = "none")

What we see right here is how, in ENSO, completely different rhythms have prevailed over time. As an alternative of “rhythms,” I might have mentioned “scales,” or “frequencies,” or “intervals” – all these translate into each other. Since, to us people, wavelet scales don’t imply that a lot, the interval (in years) is displayed on a further y axis on the correct.
So, we see that within the eighties, an (roughly) four-year interval had distinctive affect. Thereafter, but longer periodicities gained in dominance. And, in accordance with what we anticipate from prior evaluation, there’s a basso continuo of annual similarity.
Additionally, be aware how, at first sight, there appears to have been a decade the place a six-year interval stood out: proper initially of the place (for us) measurement begins, within the fifties. Nevertheless, the darkish shading – the COI – tells us that, on this area, the information is to not be trusted.
Summing up, the two-dimensional evaluation properly enhances the extra compressed characterization we bought from the DFT. Earlier than we transfer on to the subsequent sequence, nonetheless, let me simply shortly tackle one query, in case you have been questioning (if not, simply learn on, since I gained’t be going into particulars anyway): How is that this completely different from a spectrogram?
In a nutshell, the spectrogram splits the information into a number of “home windows,” and computes the DFT independently on all of them. To compute the scaleogram, alternatively, the evaluation wavelet slides constantly over the information, leading to a spectrum-equivalent for the neighborhood of every pattern within the sequence. With the spectrogram, a set window dimension signifies that not all frequencies are resolved equally properly: The upper frequencies seem extra often within the interval than the decrease ones, and thus, will permit for higher decision. Wavelet evaluation, in distinction, is completed on a set of scales intentionally organized in order to seize a broad vary of frequencies theoretically seen in a sequence of given size.
Evaluation: NAO
The information file for NAO is in fixed-table format. After conversion to a tsibble
, we’ve got:
obtain.file(
"https://crudata.uea.ac.uk/cru/knowledge//nao/nao.dat",
destfile = "nao.dat"
)
# wanted for AO, as properly
use_months <- seq.Date(
from = as.Date("1950-01-01"),
to = as.Date("2022-09-01"),
by = "months"
)
nao <-
read_table(
"nao.dat",
col_names = FALSE,
na = "-99.99",
skip = 3
) %>%
choose(-X1, -X14) %>%
as.matrix() %>%
t() %>%
as.vector() %>%
.[1:length(use_months)] %>%
tibble(
x = use_months,
nao = .
) %>%
mutate(x = yearmonth(x)) %>%
fill(nao) %>%
as_tsibble(index = x)
nao
# A tsibble: 873 x 2 [1M]
x nao
<mth> <dbl>
1 1950 Jan -0.16
2 1950 Feb 0.25
3 1950 Mar -1.44
4 1950 Apr 1.46
5 1950 Might 1.34
6 1950 Jun -3.94
7 1950 Jul -2.75
8 1950 Aug -0.08
9 1950 Sep 0.19
10 1950 Oct 0.19
# … with 863 extra rows
Like earlier than, we begin with the spectrum:
fft <- torch_fft_fft(as.numeric(scale(nao$nao)))
num_samples <- nrow(nao)
nyquist_cutoff <- ceiling(num_samples / 2)
bins_below_nyquist <- 0:nyquist_cutoff
sampling_rate <- 12
frequencies_per_bin <- sampling_rate / num_samples
frequencies <- frequencies_per_bin * bins_below_nyquist
df <- knowledge.body(f = frequencies, y = as.numeric(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff + 1)]$abs()))
df %>% ggplot(aes(f, y)) +
geom_line() +
xlab("frequency (per yr)") +
ylab("magnitude") +
ggtitle("Spectrum of NAO knowledge")

Have you ever been questioning for a tiny second whether or not this was time-domain knowledge – not spectral? It does look much more noisy than the ENSO spectrum for certain. And actually, with NAO, predictability is way worse – forecast lead time normally quantities to simply one or two weeks.
Continuing as earlier than, we decide dominant seasonalities (no less than this nonetheless is feasible!) to cross to feasts::STL()
.
strongest <- torch_topk(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff/2)]$abs(), 6)
strongest
[[1]]
torch_tensor
102.7191
80.5129
76.1179
75.9949
72.9086
60.8281
[ CPUFloatType{6} ]
[[2]]
torch_tensor
147
99
146
59
33
78
[ CPULongType{6} ]
important_freqs <- frequencies[as.numeric(strongest[[2]])]
important_freqs
[1] 2.0068729 1.3470790 1.9931271 0.7972509 0.4398625 1.0584192
num_observations_in_season <- 12/important_freqs
num_observations_in_season
[1] 5.979452 8.908163 6.020690 15.051724 27.281250 11.337662
Vital seasonal intervals are of size six, 9, eleven, fifteen, and twenty-seven months, roughly – fairly shut collectively certainly! No surprise that, in STL decomposition, the rest is much more vital than with ENSO:
nao %>%
mannequin(STL(nao ~ season(interval = 6) + season(interval = 9) +
season(interval = 15) + season(interval = 27) +
season(interval = 12))) %>%
elements() %>%
autoplot()

Now, what’s going to we see by way of temporal evolution? A lot of the code that follows is identical as for ENSO, repeated right here for the reader’s comfort:
nao_idx <- nao$nao %>% as.numeric() %>% torch_tensor()
dt <- 1/12 # identical interval as for ENSO
wtf <- wavelet_transform(size(nao_idx), dt = dt)
power_spectrum <- wtf$energy(nao_idx)
instances <- lubridate::yr(nao$x) + lubridate::month(nao$x)/12 # additionally identical
scales <- as.numeric(wtf$scales) # might be identical as a result of each sequence have identical size
df <- as_tibble(as.matrix(power_spectrum$t()), .name_repair = "common") %>%
mutate(time = instances) %>%
pivot_longer(!time, names_to = "scale", values_to = "energy") %>%
mutate(scale = scales[scale %>%
str_remove("[.]{3}") %>%
as.numeric()])
coi <- wtf$coi(instances[1], instances[length(nao_idx)])
coi_df <- knowledge.body(x = as.numeric(coi[[1]]), y = as.numeric(coi[[2]]))
labeled_scales <- c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64) # identical since scales are identical
labeled_frequencies <- spherical(as.numeric(wtf$fourier_period(labeled_scales)), 1)
ggplot(df) +
scale_y_continuous(
trans = scales::compose_trans(scales::log2_trans(), scales::reverse_trans()),
breaks = c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64),
limits = c(max(scales), min(scales)),
increase = c(0, 0),
sec.axis = dup_axis(
labels = scales::label_number(labeled_frequencies),
identify = "Fourier interval (years)"
)
) +
ylab("scale (years)") +
scale_x_continuous(breaks = seq(1950, 2020, by = 5), increase = c(0, 0)) +
xlab("yr") +
geom_contour_filled(aes(time, scale, z = energy), present.legend = FALSE) +
scale_fill_viridis_d(possibility = "turbo") +
geom_ribbon(knowledge = coi_df, aes(x = x, ymin = y, ymax = max(scales)),
fill = "black", alpha = 0.6) +
theme(legend.place = "none")

That, actually, is a way more colourful image than with ENSO! Excessive frequencies are current, and frequently dominant, over the entire time interval.
Curiously, although, we see similarities to ENSO, as properly: In each, there is a vital sample, of periodicity 4 or barely extra years, that exerces affect in the course of the eighties, nineties, and early two-thousands – solely with ENSO, it exhibits peak impression in the course of the nineties, whereas with NAO, its dominance is most seen within the first decade of this century. Additionally, each phenomena exhibit a strongly seen peak, of interval two years, round 1970. So, is there a detailed(-ish) connection between each oscillations? This query, after all, is for the area consultants to reply. Not less than I discovered a latest examine (Scaife et al. (2014)) that not solely suggests there’s, however makes use of one (ENSO, the extra predictable one) to tell forecasts of the opposite:
Earlier research have proven that the El Niño–Southern Oscillation can drive interannual variations within the NAO [Brönnimann et al., 2007] and therefore Atlantic and European winter local weather by way of the stratosphere [Bell et al., 2009]. […] this teleconnection to the tropical Pacific is lively in our experiments, with forecasts initialized in El Niño/La Niña circumstances in November tending to be adopted by destructive/constructive NAO circumstances in winter.
Will we see the same relationship for AO, our third sequence underneath investigation? We’d anticipate so, since AO and NAO are intently associated (and even, two sides of the identical coin).
Evaluation: AO
First, the information:
obtain.file(
"https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/merchandise/precip/CWlink/daily_ao_index/month-to-month.ao.index.b50.present.ascii.desk",
destfile = "ao.dat"
)
ao <-
read_table(
"ao.dat",
col_names = FALSE,
skip = 1
) %>%
choose(-X1) %>%
as.matrix() %>%
t() %>%
as.vector() %>%
.[1:length(use_months)] %>%
tibble(x = use_months,
ao = .) %>%
mutate(x = yearmonth(x)) %>%
fill(ao) %>%
as_tsibble(index = x)
ao
# A tsibble: 873 x 2 [1M]
x ao
<mth> <dbl>
1 1950 Jan -0.06
2 1950 Feb 0.627
3 1950 Mar -0.008
4 1950 Apr 0.555
5 1950 Might 0.072
6 1950 Jun 0.539
7 1950 Jul -0.802
8 1950 Aug -0.851
9 1950 Sep 0.358
10 1950 Oct -0.379
# … with 863 extra rows
And the spectrum:
fft <- torch_fft_fft(as.numeric(scale(ao$ao)))
num_samples <- nrow(ao)
nyquist_cutoff <- ceiling(num_samples / 2)
bins_below_nyquist <- 0:nyquist_cutoff
sampling_rate <- 12 # per yr
frequencies_per_bin <- sampling_rate / num_samples
frequencies <- frequencies_per_bin * bins_below_nyquist
df <- knowledge.body(f = frequencies, y = as.numeric(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff + 1)]$abs()))
df %>% ggplot(aes(f, y)) +
geom_line() +
xlab("frequency (per yr)") +
ylab("magnitude") +
ggtitle("Spectrum of AO knowledge")

Properly, this spectrum seems to be much more random than NAO’s, in that not even a single frequency stands out. For completeness, right here is the STL decomposition:
strongest <- torch_topk(fft[1:(nyquist_cutoff/2)]$abs(), 5)
important_freqs <- frequencies[as.numeric(strongest[[2]])]
important_freqs
# [1] 0.01374570 0.35738832 1.77319588 1.27835052 0.06872852
num_observations_in_season <- 12/important_freqs
num_observations_in_season
# [1] 873.000000 33.576923 6.767442 9.387097 174.600000
ao %>%
mannequin(STL(ao ~ season(interval = 33) + season(interval = 7) +
season(interval = 9) + season(interval = 174))) %>%
elements() %>%
autoplot()

Lastly, what can the scaleogram inform us about dominant patterns?
ao_idx <- ao$ao %>% as.numeric() %>% torch_tensor()
dt <- 1/12 # identical interval as for ENSO and NAO
wtf <- wavelet_transform(size(ao_idx), dt = dt)
power_spectrum <- wtf$energy(ao_idx)
instances <- lubridate::yr(ao$x) + lubridate::month(ao$x)/12 # additionally identical
scales <- as.numeric(wtf$scales) # might be identical as a result of all sequence have identical size
df <- as_tibble(as.matrix(power_spectrum$t()), .name_repair = "common") %>%
mutate(time = instances) %>%
pivot_longer(!time, names_to = "scale", values_to = "energy") %>%
mutate(scale = scales[scale %>%
str_remove("[.]{3}") %>%
as.numeric()])
coi <- wtf$coi(instances[1], instances[length(ao_idx)])
coi_df <- knowledge.body(x = as.numeric(coi[[1]]), y = as.numeric(coi[[2]]))
labeled_scales <- c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64) # identical since scales are identical
labeled_frequencies <- spherical(as.numeric(wtf$fourier_period(labeled_scales)), 1)
ggplot(df) +
scale_y_continuous(
trans = scales::compose_trans(scales::log2_trans(), scales::reverse_trans()),
breaks = c(0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64),
limits = c(max(scales), min(scales)),
increase = c(0, 0),
sec.axis = dup_axis(
labels = scales::label_number(labeled_frequencies),
identify = "Fourier interval (years)"
)
) +
ylab("scale (years)") +
scale_x_continuous(breaks = seq(1950, 2020, by = 5), increase = c(0, 0)) +
xlab("yr") +
geom_contour_filled(aes(time, scale, z = energy), present.legend = FALSE) +
scale_fill_viridis_d(possibility = "turbo") +
geom_ribbon(knowledge = coi_df, aes(x = x, ymin = y, ymax = max(scales)),
fill = "black", alpha = 0.6) +
theme(legend.place = "none")

Having seen the general spectrum, the dearth of strongly dominant patterns within the scaleogram doesn’t come as a giant shock. It’s tempting – for me, no less than – to see a mirrored image of ENSO round 1970, all of the extra since by transitivity, AO and ENSO ought to be associated not directly. However right here, certified judgment actually is reserved to the consultants.
Conclusion
Like I mentioned at first, this publish could be about inspiration, not technical element or reportable outcomes. And I hope that inspirational it has been, no less than somewhat bit. In case you’re experimenting with wavelets your self, or plan to – or when you work within the atmospheric sciences, and want to present some perception on the above knowledge/phenomena – we’d love to listen to from you!
As all the time, thanks for studying!
Photograph by ActionVance on Unsplash
Torrence, C., and G. P. Compo. 1998. “A Sensible Information to Wavelet Evaluation.” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79 (1): 61–78.